Be An Anthropologist

1. The concept of descent with modification, or evolution, has a great deal of evidence in its support. Indicate the major types of evidence? The concept or idea that species change and evolve into new and different species was described and was an established concept in Darwin's day this was described as descent with modification. The Concept of descent with modification has major evidence in support, in fact we no longer refer to the this adaption as descent with modification, rather it is now called biological evolution. According to our text species of living things are related in some fashion similar to a branching tree.However the process is not quite that simple adaption relies on several processes and to prove this or the evidence used to confirm this is ecology. Science uses the habitats of living organisms to explain the relationships between the organisms. Secondly scientists uses the concept of niche which is the adaptive response to an environment. In addition to this in formation science uses geological and fossil records to explain the changes and diversity that have happened between species over time,through the concepts of natural selection. Scientists believe each fossil is a piece of evidence about the way species adapted and the changes that took place over a period of time.â€Å"Humans are Old World primates† Humans however have striking similarities as well as differences from that of the chimp or gorilla. For instance vision human vision is the same as any other diurnal primate meaning we clearly see the same as monkeys and apes. Our sense of smell is the same as that of the anthropoid primate or ape. Similarly our behavior patterns are closely resembled of most old world apes, humans live in societies that -are based on collective conscious responses of a group of individuals.However as I mentioned before humans also have significant differences from that of other primates, for instance human growth, maturity, and reproduction is c learly different humans birth twins one out of every two-hundred and fifty births, human babies are born far more helpless than any other primate species. Also non human primates mature much more rapid than that of a human. The human brain is far more larger that that of any other primate human brains are three-times the size predicted against human body weight thus a larger brain indicates human primates are more intelligent than that of other primates like monkeys, or apes.3. Distinguish between members of genus Australopithecus and Paranthropus in terms of time, location, and physical features The earliest known and accepted fossils are categorized as Australopithecus or the southern ape. A well known and famous fossil known as Lucy belongs to this fossil group, fossils of Australopithecus's have been found in areas such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Chad, and South Africa and are dated as far back as 4.2 – 2.3 MYA.These primates are known as bipedal apes meaning they walk ed upright, members of this primate group also had facial features that were apelike, had brains half the size of chimpanzees, and weighed on average of one-hundred and five pounds. It is thought these primates adapted to arboreal and terrestrial environments because dental exams of their teeth indicate a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, and leaves. On the contrary members of the Paranthropus primates have fossils that have also been recognized these fossils have been found in places like: Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa which are dated as far back as2.8 – 1MYA. This species was thought to have been robust in terms of features relating to eating/chewing. It was discovered this species has a skull features that indicate important chewing muscles, broad dished out faces, and large cheek bones. All traits point to diets that consist largely of vegetables, fruits, and any other foods thought to be found in open areas.4. Explain why variation in skin color is of no use in defini ng human races.In trying to use information that I have learned over the course of the last few days, it would be no use in trying to define the human race based on skin color because all humans have essentially come from the same place meaning we have all developed through evolution. Basically my understanding was that people/ humans ultimately developed stronger or weaker pigment depending on where there lived after the evolved for instance darker people may have come from hotter places where a deeper or darker pigment was needed to protect a person from the sun. Or on the other hand a lighter person assumed lighter pigment because they did not live on a place so hot so their skin or pigment adapted to the area in which they lived.

Wegener and the Theory of Continental Drift

Prepared for Dr. Heather Hauser Shorter University EASC 2060 The Natural World Submitted by Lillie Momon December 6, 2011 Running head: Wegener and the Theory of Continental Drift Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) was a German scientist in the fields of meteorology, astronomy, and geology. He was one of the first scientists to theorize about the continental drift or continents in motion, which supports the belief that the Earth's continents once were a single land mass. Wegener called this land mass, â€Å"Pangaea†, because the continents began to break up, and various parts drifted away from one another. According to Wegener, â€Å"the eastern shoreline of Africa and the western shoreline of South America fit together like a piece of jigsaw puzzle, and when you align the continents at their continental shelves, their fit is even better† [ (Wegener, 2007) ]. When scientist and geologist began to traveler around the world, it was even more evident that Wegener’s theory of continental drift could be possible, because scientist had once thought that the continents had started off in their places, where they now lie. However, Wegener’s theory began to change the way people looked at the world. Based on the theory of continental drift, Wegener began to gather evidence from around the world from landforms, fossils, and climate and put it in a book titled â€Å"The Origin of Continents and Oceans,† which was published in 1915. Wegener’s theory was rejected because he could not provide evidence on the force that moved the continents. Base upon the reading of, Conceptual Integrated Science, Harry Hess and Robert Dietz, both scientists came up with a hypothesis that linked, Wegener’s theory of continental drift, to seafloor spreading. The seafloor is repeatedly changing; as new lithosphere forms in mid ocean the older lithosphere is pushed from the ridge into a deep ocean trench, which causes the continents to shift† [ (Weil, 1997) ]. According to Dr. Heather Hauser, a professor at Shorter University, in the late nineteen fifties, geologists found new evidence of continental drift, such as two rocks matching exactly. Both rocks were the same age, and h ad the same exact genetic structure. These two landforms were discovered in 1958. The location of these rocks, were western South America and south eastern Africa. This discovery helps prove that continental drift has actually occurred, because it is nearly impossible for two rocks of the same kind to turn up on two separate continents [ (Hauser, 2011) ]. Then in 1912, Wegener also found a tropical plant on the island of Spitsbergen. This island lies north of Norway in the Atlantic Ocean. Today Spitsbergen is covered in ice and has polar climate. This is important because today no tropical plant can grow in Spitsbergen, because its temperature is too cold. Wegener indicated that, Spitsbergen was once closer to the equator. He thought that this was the only possible solution for the unusual discovery. At the same time when Spitsbergen was warm and tropical, Africa’s temperature was freezing, but today Africa is known for its hot and tropical climate. Some geologists have concluded that the temperature was once freezing by discovering rocks that are covered in deep scratches. These scratches were caused by continental glaciers. Today, Africa’s weather is too mild for any type of glacier to form. Wegener concluded that when Pangaea existed, it was closer to the South Pole. Based on science research, when any continent moves to either pole, their temperature begins to drop. Based upon, all of the evidence from the landforms, fossils and climate, leads one to believe that continental drift did occurred [ (Wagner, 2008) ]. Scientist also discovered particular fresh water reptile fossils that have been found in Africa and South America. These two continents were separated by the Atlantic Ocean, making it extremely difficult for the same fossil to be found on to different continent. Which makes Wegener’s theory more plausible? Scientist later discovered a fernlike plant, which had existed about two hundred and fifty years ago. Wegener used this plant to prove his theory of continental drift could have occurred, because this plant was found in many locations [ (Wagner, 2008) ]. Also based upon, the evidence from the landforms, fossils and climate, leads scientist and geologist alike to believe that continental drift, actually did occur. We also have our reading material from, Conceptual Integrated Science and a short documentary film on the earth crust that was showed in our Science class, the Natural World, which ook placed at Shorter University, supervised by, Dr. Heather Hauser, which implies that the plate tectonics are the main forces behind the changes that happen here on Earth. If we were to use some of the evident of plate tectionic,using the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate to illustrate just a few of the fascinating features that are created along these boundaries. A ccording to the evident reviewed, the earth’s crust is not a solid mass. It is shaped more like a jigsaw puzzle that is made up of continental plates that shift around on top of the mantle. This movement takes place very slowly and large scale movement can only be measured in millions of years according to Dr. Hauser [ (Hauser, 2011) ]. Wegener’s theory is largely based on a combination of two main ideas: Continental Drift and Sea flooring. Each piece of the puzzle slides and grinds past, under, over, or away from the other pieces around it. The boundary where the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate meet is called, a convergent boundary. This is where one plate (The Pacific Plate) moves into and then underneath the other one (North America). This creates a whole lot of grinding, folding, pushing, and otherwise violent forces [ (Hewitt, 2007) ]. So therefore, based upon the evidence which have been provide in reference to the landforms, fossils, climate, seafloor spreading, and plate tectonic compels one to believe, that Alfred Wegener, theory of the continental drift really did occurred and that continental drift will continue for millions and millions or years, long after humans are gone. Hauser, D. H. (2011, November 29). The Natural World. (L. Momon, Interviewer) Hewitt, P. G. (2007). Conceptual Integrated Science. San Francisco: Pearson. Wagner, I. 2008, Aug 11). The Great Continental Drift Mystery. Retrieved November 28, 2011, from Yale Educational Curriculum: http://www. yale. edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/6/91. 06. 05. x. html Watson, J. (1999, Oct 11). Dynamic Contienents. Retrieved November 26, 2011, from http://pubs. usgs. gov/gip/dynamic/continents. html Wegener, A. (2007). Continental Drift-An Idea Before I ts Time. In P. G. hewitt, Conceptual Integrated Science (pp. 511-517). San Francisco: Pearson. Weil, A. (1997, Mar 6). The Rocky History of an Idea. Retrieved November 26, 2011, from Plate Tectonics: http://www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/geology/techist. html

H.W 4 GSC125-01 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

H.W 4 GSC125-01 - Essay Example Answer: According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat flows in response to a temperature gradient. Heat flows from a high-temperature region toward low-temperature region to remove the existing gradient. Heat is transferred by the processes of conduction, convection, radiation and latent heating (phase transition of water). Answer: On a global annual average basis, radiational heating of earth’s surface is greater than radiational cooling and radiational cooling of the atmosphere is greater than radiational heating. However, due to the formation of temperature gradient, heat is transported from warmer earth’s surface to the cooler atmosphere through processes of latent heating and sensible heating cooling the earth’s surface. Radiation is the principal means by which heat enters and escapes from the planet to space maintaining a habitable environment on earth. Answer: If the temperature falls below freezing, bridge will freeze more quickly than the road surface. Compared to road surface, bridge is exposed to air from all sides resulting in rapid heat loss. Additionally, the heat underneath the road keeps it warm enough extending the time duration of heat loss. The bridge material (mostly steel or concrete) is also a good conductor of heat, whereas road surface material (asphalt) is an insulator of heat. For these reasons, a traffic sign along an Ohio highway warns motorists that a bridge freezes before the road surface. Answer: Both Fahrenheit and Celsius are useful temperature scales for measuring temperature and are based upon the reproducible phase changes in water. On Celsius scale, freezing point of water is 0Â °C and boiling point is 100Â °C. On Fahrenheit temperature scale, water freezes at 32Â °F and boils at 212Â °F. Thus, the Celsius scale is more convenient to use as a 100 degree interval separates the freezing and boiling points of pure water at sea level. Compared to Celsius, Fahrenheit scale is more

Did the possession of nuclear weapons prevent war in Europe after 1945 Essay

Did the possession of nuclear weapons prevent war in Europe after 1945 - Essay Example There is no doubt that presence of nuclear programs and weapons enabled Europe to take wise decisions after 1945. The best example of European ‘wise decisions’ is no nuclear war has taken place since 1945. If we talk about the nuclear battlefield in the context of British Government, we would analyse the British Army of the Rhine spent much time and effort in trying to imagine what such a battlefield might look like and in preparing to cope with it. The main reason was that British Government was in debt to the USA, due to which it reduced its armed forced to one million soldiers. Beside this, all European countries were aware of the haphazard of nuclear war, since the bombing of ‘Hiroshima’. During the 1950s and 1960s these efforts were taken very seriously, which involved two steps: possessing advanced nuclear weapons and visualising war with and without them. Of course war cannot be fought without them, which means war fought with nuclear weapons. ‘ Hiroshima’ bombing is a sample view, which is still giving birth to the haphazard of a single nuclear bomb. In the context of war at the strategic level the first response was to emphasise ‘counterforce’. Soviet weapons were the strategic targets and senior commanders still talked as though a nuclear war could be ‘won’. Then the danger of this approach dawned with the development of Soviet Union the means of delivering a massive blow against the United States, so the notion of 'riding out' a first strike and then delivering a counter-blow on what could only be empty silos and deserted bomber bases became highly unattractive. The result was a shift back to 'city-busting', holding the people rather than the weapons as hostages; 400 one-megaton weapons able to hit area targets would suffice. This totally amoral doctrine was dressed up under the term Mutual Assured Destruction and its appropriate acronym (MAD). The tactical counterpart to this change of heart took a further five years to mature. It came to be realised that large-scale assault on NATO, while still a de adly danger, was by no means the only or even the most likely contingency. (Barnaby & Holdstock, 2003, p. 39) At that time the total nuclear stockpile of the United States, at its highest point, had an estimated explosive yield of some 9 billion tons of high explosive and the Soviet stockpile must have been much the same. In the 20 years from 1945 to 1965 nuclear warheads evolved to fill every possible ecological niche on the battlefield and in numbers far greater than any rational person could possibly have considered useful. (2003, p.

Mormons and Utah statehood Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Mormons and Utah statehood - Research Paper Example It is this persecution which had made them aware that self rule was the only way forward to stop the persecution. However as fate would have it this land at that time belonged to Mexico. But in 1848, the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed which gave this land to United States of America. (Allen 1976) On March 8 1949, a constitutional convention was called in the Salt Lake City by the Mormon leaders in order to campaign for a new state. This state as envisioned by them included the present day Utah , Nevada , Arizona , parts of California ,Colorado   New Mexico and Idaho. (New Mexico Constituional Convention 1911) This convention ended up selecting the officers for this self declared desert state. Almon W.Babbitt was chosen as a representative by this ‘state’ to the US Senate. However the senate refused to meet this representative from a state which was self declared. The congress gave 2 reasons for the refusal to grant statehood – one was the lack of 60,000 eligible voters required and other was the huge size of the proposed state. However in September of 1850 the Senate passed a bill which provided for the organisation of Utah territory.The LSD church authorities publicly said that polygamy or the doctrine of plural marriage was one of the divine obligations of its faithful. However polygamy proved to be one of the biggest obstacles in the path of statehood for Utah. Polygamy was paired by the US senate along with slavery and was considered as an evil which needed to be eradicated from United States at any cost.

The Confidence In Of International Brands Dissertation

The Confidence In Of International Brands - Dissertation Example Figure 2: Age distribution in Saudi Arabia (male and female combined). Data sourced from Central Intelligence Agency The Saudi Fashion Market Western brands are very common in Saudi Arabia. Growth in franchising has been estimated at 27% in the Middle East in general, and in Saudi Arabia more than 70% of all franchised operations are American owned. Fashion from UK, Europe and the USA are all experiencing strong growth in the Saudi market, especially in the area of female fashion. While UK fashion initially had a strong hold over the market, there is now increasing trends towards US brands such as Gap, Gucci and Louis Vitton . The fashion market in Saudi is very seasonally based, with sales following religious holidays as well as the seasons. With the relatively young population, there is large potential for the fashion market. The habits of the nation are changing to become more in line with Western culture, a trend that is especially strong in the younger generation. Women are leav ing their traditional roles and many going into work. These trends are driving the boom in the fashion industry . Despite the fact that women wear the Abaya over their clothes, a traditional black dress that covers them, they often wear western clothing underneath . In addition there is a trend of fashion designers producing colored Abayas that are popular, especially for the younger generation. Teenage girls and young adult females have developed ways of wearing their Abayas that reveal their western clothing underneath, such as leaving the front wide open, or tying the edge around their waists, so their tight western jeans can be seen . There are also many different styles and cuts of Abayas and... While malls in Saudi Arabia resemble the western style of malls in many ways, but there is also strong evidence of the strict religious and cultural guidelines that are in place. Images on the front of music CDs are often censored, such as the sleeveless dress that Celine Dion wears on the front of one of her albums was replaced with a black shawl. Other differences are also noticeable, male and female Saudis are only able to work together in hospitals, so all sales people on the mall’s mixed floors are male foreign workers. At McDonald's the women must eat in a separate walled off section, while men eat in the open. The country has large segregation between men and women, so much so that paranoia about men hiding in dressing rooms has resulted in the absence of any dressing rooms in malls. The Kingdom Centre in Riyadh is attempting to turn this into a business advantage rather than a logistical hassle. They offer a female only floor, where all staff and security are female an d females are free to walk around in western style clothing, checking in their Abayas if they wish). Both products and sales are advertised in a wide number of ways, similar to in the western market. Internet advertisements are common, especially with the increasing use of the internet. Blogging has become a popular means of expressing the opinion, especially as media is tightly controlled. Because of this, flash and static advertising are common through blogging sites, although these are mainly for fashion stores in general.

FMRI Management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

FMRI Management - Coursework Example There are many products provided by banks and other financial intermediaries to the customers for long-term motives. Some of the prominent provisions of services include term deposit and comparable accounts, which allows consumers to make very safe and appealing investment (Padmalatha 2011). It is because a defined period of money drawl is beneficial as it returns back higher rate and it is a low risk investment compared to demand deposit. Financial intermediaries give consumers an opportunity to utilize bonds and quoted shares as currency to start up a small business (Padmalatha 2011). In addition, banks also facilitated their customers with the opportunity of invested funds through fair means under the supervision of concerned authoritative bodies. Skilled and efficient managers are responsible for the security of invested fund to ensure banks as most trustworthy organizations for the consumers.Life insurance is another important policy of financial intermediaries to serve people o f the society. It is a long-term service, specifically an important financial security for family (Padmalatha 2011). It can aid a family during crucial stages of life, such as marriage, health care, or education of children. It is a vital tool of protecting family and children in financial terms. A pension policy is another very significant service for the citizens (Padmalatha 2011). It is considered a complementary plan for the public provided by employers of the organization to their employees after retirement or death. This policy allows family of an employee to receive a fix amount from the salary, through the whole life on a monthly basis. These are some of the most advantageous long-term services, provided by retail banks or non-bank financial intermediaries (Padmalatha 2011). Implications of Increased Interest Rates: Increase in interest rate pulls down inflation. However, more than investors get benefit with the increased interest rates. It is so because an increase in inter est rate also increases the worth of loan. Ultimately, the worth of pension and bond fund increases. It provides an outstanding benefit to those who depends upon pension and other funds for their monthly income (Cummings 2010). This condition attracts more people towards saving funds rather than spending their money, because everyone is well aware of the facts, which can bring gain to them. Thus, during the season of higher interest rate, rate of individuals` investment increases in the banks. Moreover, in this situation risk premium is also provided, which usually gets flatten during low interest rates (Cummings 2010). In addition, not only citizens, but foreigners also tend to show their interest in investment in the state, where interest rate increases and benefits investors with high rate of returned amount. Furthermore, it has been observed that it results in stronger currency and puts higher demands of currency (Cummings 2010). As a result, countries take advantage from curren cies of other states and citizens enjoy lower rate of good and products of daily use such as petrol and other food items. Additionally, in this season governmental bodies of the country buy back bond on low cost (Cummings 2010). In short, it could be said that investors look for more advantages than disadvantages of the season because it is beneficial for saving money, but not for investments. Risk to Commercial Banks: Commercial banks gain a return towards shareholder only when the organizers successfully

Psychology at Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Psychology at Work - Essay Example The value of well-being programmes as an organisational investment is explored in this study. Reference is made, as an example, to the case of BGL Group. The specific firm is well established in the UK market, being involved in the provision of insurance and legal services. The firm has emphasized on the well-being of its employees so that their motivation and commitment to the organisation are secured. The review of the elements and the effects of this programme can hep to understand whether such programmes could be a good investment for organisations in the modern market. The well-being programme of BGL Group will be checked and evaluated using the concepts of work psychology as included in relevant literature, with particular reference to the work of Anna Sutton. As a theoretical framework work psychology is rather wide, being able to incorporate different themes, such as ‘psychopathology and organisational development’ (Sutton, 2014: 6-7). Various approaches have been used for describing work psychology. According to one of these views, the work psychology ‘facilitates change towards improved work and working conditions’ (Milward, 2005: 1). From another point of view, work psychology aims to provide to managers necessary information in regard to ‘the application of psychological principles to running a business’ (Hodson, 2014: 6). In any case, work psychology has to support organisational development. This fact indicates the close relationship between work psychology and organisational change (Sutton, 2014). I t should be noted that work psychology can be related to different priorities, depending on the geographical area involved: in USA the limitation of costs is of primary importance while for firms based in UK work psychology would be most related to the increase of firms’ profitability (Sutton, 2014: 10). The second approach will be

Education and Transportation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Education and Transportation - Research Paper Example On the way to the Middle East, the Ottoman led Turkey’s Empire conquered Qatar and maintained strong control of strategic cities for several centuries. By 1821, this virgin and valuable land attracted the interests of the Britain who invaded its coastal lands and destroyed the Portuguese structures on the claim that it was a haven for piracy (Al-Amoodi and Kasim 145). Since their entry into the country, the British has dominated and transformed leading sectors of the economy. They have also influenced Qatar’s original culture, language, and general economic activities. One of the areas that have heavily been influenced by the British culture is education. Qatar has many schools and learning institutions that cater for local and foreign academic demands. Its education systems are jointly controlled by the Supreme Education Council and the Ministry of Education. However, the bulk of regulation and control of the academic systems are left to the Supreme Education Council. This is regulatory body has tried to make Qatar’s educations system world-class. This has been realized through according learning institutions more authority to independently exercise full control over their academic affairs. Private and international schools are very popular in major cities of the country. Notably, very few locals attend these institutions on the account that they are unaffordable to majority of low and medium income Qataris (Trani and Holsworth 71). The popular and recommended curriculums are American, French, International, and the British Education Syste m. Given that dominance of the Britain in Qatar, its political systems have referred and recommended the British Education System for the local and international interests. The British academic modules and programs have been applied in Qatar. This has impacted on the general academic standards of the country. This is because they have heavily borrowed from the British education

The Importance Of Free Will In Regards To Morality Research Paper

The Importance Of Free Will In Regards To Morality - Research Paper Example Alex commits different crimes from mugging, breaking into stores to raping of minors. Finally, Alex is arrested during a break into an old woman’s mansion, taken to court and sentenced to fourteen years in prison. The climate environment does not suit Alex due to his violent ways and later on after befriending some prisoners, they beat up a cellmate to death. Alex finds himself in as participant in a reform treatment that utilizes Ludovico’s technique that had been under assessment (Burgess 285). Alex is put under the process of reform treatment that proves to be a bad ordeal for him after which he gets released into the society. Later, Alex continues with his old violent ways however, this time with a new gang. Finally, Alex agrees to transform after an encounter with an old comrade and his wife. In theoretical context, a typical human being has to possess the ability to choose what he or she wants to do. The ability to choose encompasses the choice between the good an d the evil that has more orientation on one’s own morality. In cases where a person cannot choose what they prefer or want on a certain matter, then they are no better than any other animal that has no ability to choose that is they cannot be considered equal human beings. The author of the novel represents the significance or importance of having a moral choice on a particular subject. The author emphasizes the importance of having a personal freewill while resolving a certain matter since one has the capacity to transform his or her own life and even become a righteous human being. In the case of Alex, the same ideology applies and finally brings him into a transformed human being with certain expectations in life. The expression of Alex’s disappointment in the dysfunctional family can be considered as one of the factors that contribute to Alex’s engagement in crime (Skjorestad 9). However, having the freewill to choose the right and wrong, he finally manages to overcome the aguish and disappointment since he finally realizes that he has for all this time causing self-destruction through engagement in crime and other undesirable behavior. The novel strengthens the point that persons who make bad choice for themselves are far much superior to the person who is forced into doing something good by another person. In the novel, the necessity of having freewill for all humans was voiced by two people these are F. Alexander and the chaplain in the prison (Newman 7). Freewill has been argued by different people including the author to be necessary for the maintenance of humanity both at individual and societal levels. In the novel, Alex has the chance to point out that revolutions can only be managed or built on freewill. However, freewill in the case of Alex violates certain aspects since the actions of Alex harms other people (Newman 7). The author agrees with the fact that Alex’s deeds do indeed cause harm to others and presents the m ain question in the novel that is whether the society should nurture the harmful freewill (Sandy 67). The author continues to argue out that the harmful free will should be nurtured or allowed since the choice of doing well is genuine therefore cannot be forced (Burgess 282). The author continues and gives the evidence in the instance where being good is forced into Alex through the ordeal presented by the Ludovico’

Progress Conference Essay Example for Free

Progress Conference Essay AGENDA What are the points which I was able to do correctly? What are my common mistakes in writing? Is my topic broad enough to cover the essential parts? Are my sources credible and relevant to the topic I’m writing about? Will my progress plan be effective, or should I redo it and think of other approaches? REVISION Original paragraph   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the case assignment, Chuck Hanrahan raised an issue on the problem of illegal immigrants in the United States. He believes existing federal laws are the solution to the problem. What is lacking is the political will to implement them by the right agency. The critical thinking techniques of Brown and Keeley (2006) will serve as the model for this exercise. Hanrahan’s arguments are outlined below. The problem can be solved only by addressing respective demand and supply factors. The government needs political will to implement fully laws covering illegal immigrant workers. Revised   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the case assignment, Chuck Hanrahan raises an issue on the problem of illegal immigrants in the United States. He believes that existing federal laws are the solution to the problem. What is lacking is the political will to implement them by the right agency. The model to be used as a guide for this case assignment will be that of Brown and Keeley (2006). Hanrahan’s arguments are outlined below. The problem can be solved only by addressing respective demand and supply factors. The government needs political will to fully implement laws covering illegal immigrant workers. Paraphrasing Original referenced text By not using critical thinking techniques, management analysts may limit their views and opinions that prevent scrutiny of problem situation and unwittingly are led to the wrong solutions by decision traps (Langlois, G. 2007). Paraphrase Critical thinking techniques help management analysts to have a broader view of a problem, leading to the right solutions and away from decision traps. PROGRESS CHECK   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the main problems that I encountered is about talking and coordinating with other people. In order to solve this problem, I need to Assess which information that I have is relevant or not. Decide on what course of action I have to take if the problem arises. Writing sentences which are clear and concise no matter what length it is.

Social Advantages of EU Memebership

Social Advantages of EU Memebership Introduction The following working paper presents the Social assistance and social advantages in the European Union and third country nationals (with special attention for Turkish persons). It has been organized in seven main chapters which are summarized briefly in the following paragraphs. In order to have a view of what makes the legal basis for TCN’s rights in European Union, this paper tries to describe the most important International and European legal instruments.  These instruments set minimum standards relating to the protection of migrants, their families and refugees as well as for international co-operation on migration. International law protect migrant according to fundamental principles like; equality of treatment between regular migrant workers and nationals in the realm of employment and occupation; universal human rights apply to all human beings, including all migrants, regardless of status. International instruments provide normative standards for all national legislation and policy on migration. The main international human rights Conventions and Covenants apply to all human beings, including migrants and refugees. The Council of Europe’s migration instruments cover general human rights and more specific agreements relating to migrants and migrant workers. The Community has power to enter into agreements with third countries which agreements may either be limited to matters within the exclusive competence of the Community or cover a wider mix of issues including areas of shared competence between the Member States and the Community[3].  Agreement with third countries in this working paper are mentioned not because they provide direct social rights (referring to the Turkey agreement) to TCN’s but because the European Court of Justice often make reference to them conferring direct effect[4]  for the equal treatment of TCN’s. Under the EU law, where a right deriving from an agreement is found to be directly enforceable by the ECJ (direct effect), it is part of the acquis communautaire and must be applied by the Communitys national courts. The jurisprudence of the ECJ clarify the treatment of third country nationals having an advantageous legal status close to nationals of Members States. Moreover, it has been tried to provide a general view of social advantages for TCN’s in European Union. It is well known that social advantages and social rights for  TCN’s depend mainly on their legal status. Different categories of TCN’s are treated differently in respect of social rights within the Union.  Irregular immigrants and persons illegally residing in a country are mentioned in this paper but are not treated deeply considering that they have very restricted rights in respect of social rights. Regular immigrants have a more favorable situation and enjoy rights and obligations comparable to those of citizens of the European Union. A description of different directives and regulations has been made in order to explain what social rights and advantages have the category of third country nationals within the European Union. Reference to the definition of social advantages according to ECJ case laws has been made. In the following chapter, Social assistance in the European Union, it has been tried to explain several definitions that exist for social assistance, Social Regimes and Social Protection Delivery Systems, the role of social assistance, its personal scope, level and duration of social assistance benefits and conditioning of social assistance. The general situation of social assistance is further analyzed in four European countries; Germany, Austria, France and Belgium. European Union Countries provide social assistance for persons in need in different ways. They are guided almost from the same principles but apply different provisions and eligibility criteria because access to social assistance is governed according to national rules. This section aims to present an analysis of how social assistance systems are administered in Germany, Austria, France and Belgium, their legal and administrative structures and rules of eligibility, relative rules which determine the benefits etc. In general, immigrants with permanent residence status have access to social security benefits on the same basis as nationals in all Member States. There are greater differences in regulations relating to social assistance, where the great majority of the States provide access to long-resident third-country nationals on the same basis as for nationals. Regulations and practices regarding the provisions available for asylum seekers also differ. Contribution-based benefits are generally accessible on the same basis as they are for nationals.  However, there are often limitations linked to minimum contributions or waiting periods. Conditions of access to social assistance can have an important impact on the social inclusion of immigrants. Considering the above, in the chapter 6 of this working paper â€Å"Social assistance for third country nationals in four European union countries†, it has been tried to provide a view of how TCN’s are treated in Germany, Austria, Franc e and Belgium as regarded to social assistance. The selection of these countries has been made according to the differences they have in providing social assistance to third country nationals. France and Germany have more liberal social assistance system concerning third country nationals than Belgium and Austria. In the first two countries social assistance is provided for all persons without any condition relating to period of residence in the national territory, meanwhile in Belgium and Austria residence condition is mandatory for being eligible to social assistance.   In the last chapter of this paper has been described different social rights, which are found in different directives and regulations for Turkish persons in European Union.  Even though, it is obvious that the arrangements for Turkish migrants under the association instruments provide less legal protection compared nationals of Member States, they have a more favorable social situation than other third country nationals. The methodology used is that of qualitative content analyses of International and European primary and secondary legal instruments as well as a description of the situation of social assistance in four European  Union Countries. 1.  Legal Instruments For Social Security of TCN In European Union International and European legal instruments set minimum standards relating to the protection of migrants, their families and refugees as well as for international co-operation on migration. Although States have their sovereign rights over migration policies in their countries, international law protect migrant according to fundamental principles like; equality of treatment between regular migrant workers and nationals in the realm of employment and occupation; universal human rights apply to all human beings, including all migrants, regardless of status. International Legal Instruments   International instruments provide normative standards for all national legislation and policy on migration. The main international human rights Conventions and Covenants apply to all human beings, including migrants and refugees. Nonetheless, specific sets of instruments have been elaborated to address the particular situations of, respectively, refugees and asylum seekers, migrant workers, and trafficking and smuggling of human beings. Certain aspects of other international treaties also apply to migration, notably International Labor Standards, international consular law and certain international trade agreements. International Human Rights Conventions provide a broad and ample normative framework for the protection of migrants. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 laid out a comprehensive set of universal human rights principles. It is not legally binding, but it has provided the foundation for the recognition of social secu ­rity rights in treaties subsequently adopted. Art. 22 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantee the right to social security. Art. 25 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes the right of everyone to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age and other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his or her control[5]. Specific conventions subsequently explicitly extended the application of universal rights to victims of racial discrimination, women, children, and migrants: Convention for the Elimination of Racism and Racial Discrimination (CERD), Convention Against Torture (CAT), Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families(CMR)[6].These instruments have been characterized as fundamental human rights instruments that define basic, universal human rights and ensure their explicit extension to vulnerable groups world-wide[7]. The Convention on the Status of Refugees 1951 provides essential standards regarding recognition, protection of and assistance to refugees and asylum seekers. The Convention defines who is a refugee, sets out rights of individuals granted asylum, delineates the responsibility of States to non-refoulement and provides other provisions such as regarding refugee travel documents. ILO Convention No. 102 on Social Security (Minimum Standards) recognizes the following nine spe ­cific branches of social security: medical care, sickness benefits, unemployment benefits, old ­age benefits, unemployment injury benefits, family benefits, maternity benefits, invalidity benefits and survivors’ benefits[8].  Minimum re ­quirements are stipulated as to the coverage of the population, the content and level of benefits, the protection of the rights of con ­tributors and beneficiaries and matters of administration. Other relevant Conventions of ILO are: Maternity Protection Conven ­tion (Revised), 1952 (No. 103); Equality of Treatment Social Se ­curity) Convention, 1962 (No. 118) (concerning equality of treatment of nationals and non-na ­tionals); Maintenance of Social Secu ­rity Rights Convention, 1982 (No. 157). International Labor Standards to policy and practice regarding employment dimensions of migration have repeatedly underscored the applicability to all migrant workers of International Labor Standards covering conditions at work, occupational safety and health, maximum hours of work, minimum remuneration, non-discrimination, freedom of association, collective bargaining, and maternity leave, among others. European Legal Instruments The Council of Europe’s migration instruments cover general human rights and more specific agreements relating to migrants and migrant workers. The European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR)[9] applies clearly to everyone within the jurisdiction of a state party, which means that all migrants in Council of Europe member states are covered by its provisions irrespective of their country of origin[10]. The importance of this Convention is because, unlike other Council of Europe instruments, its personal scope is not limited to nationals of other states parties. The ECHR primarily safeguards civil and political rights and that the legal status of migrant workers. This convention is strongly connected to the protection of their economic and social rights but its role in this field is limited. Nevertheless, the discriminatory application of economic and social rights in respect of migrants may well lead to a violation of the ECHR.  While there are no specific provisions on migrant workers in the ECHR, migrants have obtained remedies from the European Court of Human Rights under its cas e law in protection of their right to respect for family life and the non-discrimination principle (Arts. 8 and 14 respectively)[11]. The European Social Charter (1961) and its Additional Protocol (1988), as well as the Revised European Social Charter (Council of Europe, 1996) which entered into force in July 1999[12], in contrast to the ECHR, has a limited personal scope because it only applies to foreigners who are nationals of other contracting parties.  The Charter is the only treaty which guarantees the right to social and medical assistance. The dichotomy between social security and social assistance is highly controversial, it appears in the Charter, which approaches the two areas in two separate Articles (Article 12 and Article 13) carrying different undertakings. Article 12(4), is concerned with ensuring equal treatment between the nationals of contracting parties in respect of social security rights by the conclusion of bilateral or multilateral agreements (or by other means) and Article 13(4), is concerned with the treatment of foreigners lawfully within the territory of contracting parties in respect of social and medical assistance in accordance with the obligations of contracting parties under the European Convention on Social and Medical Assistance. It considers as social assistance, benefits for which individual need is the main criterion for eligibility, without any requirement of affiliation to a social security scheme aimed to cover a particular risk, or any requirement of professional activity or payment of contributions. European Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers (Council of Europe, 1977) includes provisions relating to the main aspects of the legal status of migrant workers coming from Contracting parties, and especially to residence and work permits, medical examinations and vocational tests, recruitment, housing, family reunion, travel, conditions of work, transfer of savings, expiry of the contract of employment, dismissal and re-employment, social and medical assistance, social security, and preparation for return to the country of origin[13]. European Convention on Social and Medical Assistance ensure that nationals of contracting parties lawfully present in the territory of another contracting party, and who are without sufficient resources, are entitled to social and medical assistance on the same basis as nationals (Article 1) [14]. As of 15 September 2002, this convention was in force in seventeen member states[15]. The convention prohibits a contracting party from repatriating nationals from other contracting parties who are lawfully resident in its territory on the sole ground that they are in need of assistance (Article 6.a), although it may still do so if the following three conditions in Article 7.a are satisfied: the person concerned has not been continuously resident in the territory of that Contracting Party for at least five years if he entered it before attaining the age of 55 years, or for at least ten years if he entered it after attaining that age, he is in a fit state of health to be transported, and has no close ties in the territory in which he is resident[16]. The importance of this convention is that both the provisions concerning social and medical assistance in the European Social Charter (Article 13(4)) and the European Convention on the Legal Status of Migrant Workers (Article 19) refer specifically to the obligations of contracting parties under the convention. Articles 13(1)-(2) of the Charter require contracting parties to ensure that persons without adequate resources are provided with adequate assistance and health care and that they do not suffer from the diminution of their political and social rights because they receive such assistance. Article 13(3) provides that everyone should be able to benefit from public or private services to prevent, remove or alleviate personal or family want. These rights also apply to nationals of contracting parties who work regularly or reside lawfully within the territory of another contracting party on the same basis as nationals. Article 13(4) of the Charter extends the scope of these provisio ns by stipulating that they are to be applied by contracting parties on an equal basis to the nationals of other contracting parties lawfully within their territories in accordance with their obligations under the European Convention on Social and Medical Assistance[17]. Treaty Establishing the European Community (EC Treaty) provides for freedom of movement for workers from EU member states, although transitional arrangements are in place limiting this freedom for nationals from certain new member states. The Treaty prohibits any discrimination based on nationality between these workers as regards employment, remuneration and other conditions of work and employment, including social security (Arts. 12 and 39). The EC Treaty also invites the EU Council of Ministers to take measures necessary to ensure equality of treatment and to combat discrimination based on, inter alias, race, ethnic origin, religion or belief, and sexual orientation. The Council is also empowered to take measures in the field of asylum, immigration and safeguarding of the rights of nationals of third countries, although the measures adopted to date on legal migration have afforded third-country nationals lesser rights than those granted EU citizens. European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights, adopted in 2000, sets out in a single text, for the first time in EU history, the whole range of civil, political, economic and social rights of EU citizens and all persons resident in the European Union. Council Directive 2003/109/Ec f 25 November 2003 on 3rd country nationals who are long term residents respects the fundamental rights and observes the principles recognized in particular by the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and by the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union[18]. It promotes the integration of third-country nationals who are long-term residents in the Member States as a key element in promoting economic and social cohesion[19]. This directive specifies that long-term residents should enjoy equality of treatment with citizens of the Member State in a wide range of economic and social matters.  With regard to social assistance, the possibility of limiting the benefits for long-term residents to core benefits is to be understood in the sense that this notion covers at least minimum income support, assistance in case of illness, pregnancy, parental assistance and long-term care[20]. The modalities for grantin g such benefits should be determined by national law. A broader view of directive 109 provisions is presented in the chapter with social advantages for TCN’s in EU. Council Recommendation 92/441/EEC[21] of 24 June 1992 on common criteria concerning sufficient resources and social assistance in social protection systems. This Recommendation, adopted in June 1992 at the Lisbon European Council, recognizes the basic right of a person to guaranteed sufficient resources and social assistance, as part of a comprehensive and consistent drive to combat social exclusion, and to adapt their social protection systems as necessary. It is open to all individuals resident in the Member State in accordance with national and Community provisions that do not have access to sufficient resources individually or within the household in which they live. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 of 14 June 1971 on the application of social security schemes to employed persons and their families moving within the Community (5), provide Third-country nationals with refugee status equal social security rights with EU nationals. Council Regulation (EC) No 859/2003 extends the provisions of Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 and Regulation (EEC) No 574/72 to nationals of third countries who are not already covered by those provisions solely on the ground of their nationality. It ensure fair treatment of third country nationals legally residing in the territory of Member States, granting them rights and obligations comparable to those of EU citizens. In this regulation is enhanced social and cultural life and the legal status of TCN is approximated to that of Member States nationals. A high level of social protection is promoted and a set of uniform rights as near as possible to those enjoyed by EU citizens is granted to TCN. European Community agreements with third countries The Community has power to enter into agreements with third countries which agreements may either be limited to matters within the exclusive competence of the Community or cover a wider mix of issues including areas of shared competence between the Member States and the Community[22].   Turkey Agreement: The EEC-Turkey Association Agreement[23], implemented by Association Council Decisions 2/76, 1/80 and 3/80,4 provides for certain rights for Turkish nationals and their family members employed and resident in EU member states. Turkish workers resident in EU member states are also entitled to the same protection from expulsion as EU nationals employed in other member states. With regard to social security rights, the European Court of Justice has also held that Article 3(1) of Decision 3/80, which affords Turkish workers and their family member’s treatment equal to that of nationals of member states, confers direct effect[24]. Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia: The agreements with the Maghreb countries of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia[25] confer equal treatment on Maghreb nationals employed and resident in EU member states as regards their working conditions or remuneration and social security[26]. These non-discrimination provisions have been found by the European Court of Justice as containing sufficiently clear and precise obligations to confer direct effect in EU countries of employment[27]. Equal treatment in social security extends to family members, who have been defined broadly by the ECJ to include the parents of the worker and his or her spouse residing in the host member state[28]. In the field of social security, these agreements are generally based on the following principles: Equal treatment with nationals of the Member States in which they are employed, of Moroccan workers and members of their families living with them, for all branches of social security covered by Regulation 1408/71. Aggregation of periods of insurance, employment or residence completed in the Member States for each of the above social security branches, with the exception of unemployment benefits, industrial accident or occupational disease benefits, and death grants; Transfer of family benefits to other Community countries; Transfer to Morocco of old-age, survivors’ and invalidity benefits, and industrial accident or occupational disease benefits; Application of these principles by Morocco to Community workers, with the exception of aggregation. Europe Agreements: The Community can enter into Europe Agreements with third countries which may also be candidates for accession to the EU. These agreements include a provision guaranteeing equal treatment of migrant workers and nationals as regards working conditions, remuneration or dismissal. In contrast to the agreements with the Maghreb countries, however, equality of treatment in the Europe Agreements in respect of social security is dependent on the adoption of provisions for the co-ordination of social security schemes by the Association Council established under each agreement. The Ruling of the European Court of Justice Under the EU law, the rights of non-EU nationals (including Turkish nationals) to entry, residence, work, social security benefits, education and other social and tax advantages are based either on their relationship with EU nationals or firms (derivative rights) or on their status as a national of a country with which the Community has concluded an international agreement (direct rights)[29]. The EU law differs from other instruments of international law in that decisions, agreements and acts of the institutions of the Community are directly applicable in the Member States. Of course, not all provisions of directly applicable international law are capable of direct effect[30]. When a provision of EU law is directly effective, domestic courts are under an obligation not only to apply it, but to do so in priority over any conflicting provisions of national law according to the principle of primacy of EU law[31]. Therefore, EU law has priority over national laws in the areas in which they apply. Under the EU law, where a right deriving from an agreement is found to be directly enforceable by the ECJ (direct effect), it is part of the acquis communautaire and must be applied by the Communitys national courts. Furthermore, if it appears to a national court that a national provision does not comply with community law, the court is under an obligation to apply Community law and if necessary grant interim relief while the opinion of the ECJ is being asked[32]. Despite the jurisprudence of the ECJ clarifying the treatment of third country nationals having an advantageous legal status close to nationals of Members States, a comprehensive and exclusive Community competence in this area still remains to be unresolved. A dichotomy was developed over the years by the Member States, by explicitly recognizing, on the one hand, the requirement of much closer consultation and co-operation at Community level in the implementation of national migration policies vis-ÃÆ'  -vis third countries[33]. On the other hand, Member States always underlined that matters relating to the access, residence and employment of migrant workers from third countries fall under the jurisdiction of the governments of the Member States and nothing shall stop them to take measures to control immigration form third countries[34]. 2.  TCN In European Union Definition of TCN According to Article 17(1) of the Treaty†[35] ‘third country national (TCN) is â€Å"any person who is not a citizen of the Union within the meaning of this definition includes a number of categories of persons: Refugees, asylum seekers, migrant workers, those who enter through family reunion, and legally resident and undocumented immigrants. It also includes stateless persons, in accordance with the definition in the Constitutional Treaty. Categories of TCN Third country nationals are contrary to EU-nationals. Their situation differs not only from European Union Nationals but also between the different categories of third country nationals. Referring to the definition of TCN the following categories can be distinguished: Asylum Seeker: is someone who makes a claim for asylum in a country other than their own. The rights of asylum seekers are more restricted than the rights of refugees in relation to movement (where they can travel to), employment, health care and social security. Illegal Immigrant: is someone who has moved from one state to another without any legal claim, such as a visa or a claim for asylum. Migrant Unlike refugees, migrants do not fear persecution from their home state. Instead, they make a conscious decision to move and have the freedom to return to their state of origin if they wish. Refugee: in the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees a refugee is defined as someone who: owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country[36]. Stateless Person: is someone who does not belong as a citizen to any state. A stateless person may also be a refugee but this is not always the case. For example, a person may leave their home state without persecution. Some people are also born into statelessness due to their parents either being stateless themselves, or unable to register the birth of their child. According to the legal base which covers TCN the following categories can be distinguished[37]: Third country Nationals from EFTA states. They are covered by regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 and their situation is similar to EU-nationals. Third country Nationals who are family members of EU nationals, partly covered by Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71. Third country Nationals covered by agreements concluded between the community and third countries. Third country Nationals covered by multilateral agreements such as agreements of the Council of Europe, ILO etc. Third country Nationals covered by bilateral agreements. Third country Nationals who are not covered by any agreement. Legal Status of TCN According to their legal status, immigrants in European countries can be grouped into four different categories[38]: The immediate citizenship model. The receiving state recognizes the immigrants as citizens immediately on their arrival. The quasi-citizenship model, immigrants have a similar status but not completely identical to the citizenship model. Alien resident have the same rights as the citizens of the host state in almost all fields of social life. Privileged treatment for special categories of immigrants, rights to enter or stay in the country are granted to certain special categories of aliens. Their residence rights are protected. Those aliens have limited possibilities for expulsion or deportation[39]. They have special rights or same treatment as citizens in several areas. Denizen[40] status, or semi-citizen status, aliens receive almost full residence rights (expulsion being limited to exceptional cases). Equal treatment with citizens is granted in most areas of public life (access to all jobs, equal rights to housing, education and social security) and sometimes even in political life. The exact content of the rights included in each model may differ slightly from country to country. The main differences in Social and political rights granted to immigrants are between the first model and the other three models. Full set of social and political rights are granted only to immigrants with citizenship of the country of residence. As for the other three models immigrants social and political rights are limited to the right to participate in elections on the local or the regional level and the access to certain jobs in the public service. 3.  Social Advantages of Third Country Nationals In European Union It is not easy to define social advantages of TCN’s in European Union. Social advantages and social rights of TCN’s depend on their legal status. Different categories of TCN’s enjoy different social rights within the Union.  Illegal immigrants, for example, cannot claim any rights and are not eligible for any welfare schemes because of their impossibility of presenting any official documents (identification, residence or work permit, etc.) regarding their status. Regular immigrants have a more favorable situation and enjoy rights and obligations comparable to those of citizens of the European Union. According to their status, their social rights are included within different directives and regulations. The European Council, in its special meeting in Tampere on 15 and 16 October 1999, acknowledged the need for harmonization of national legislation on the conditions for admission and residence of TCN’s. In this context, it has in particular stated that the European Union should ensure fair treatment of third country nationals residing lawfully on the territory of the Member States and that a more vigorous integration policy should aim at granting them rights and obligations comparable to those of citizens of the European Union. Council Regulation (EEC) No 1408/71 has a restricted personal scope of application and provides equal social security rights with EU nationals only to third-country nationals with refugee status.

Pentonville Prison History

Pentonville Prison History Introduction This dissertation will identify the history of prisons and how Pentonville prison came about in 1842. It will bring in Millbank as an example to Pentonville, as it was also a convict prison. It will also identify how the crimes committed and the punishment placed on criminals in London changed when Pentonville prison was built. It will also show how the prison reform changed the prison and how it affected Pentonville prison. Law and order in London will also be identified. Information and research will be obtained from The National Archives in Kew and also the Galleries of Justice in Nottingham. It will also include primary sources such as the Times Newspaper, The Guardian and also Parliamentary papers. Secondary information will be found at the University library and also Liverpool library. During the nineteenth century, the state of prisons changed dramatically. The government and officials began to notice that crime rates were not being reduced and the prison system needed to be improved as it was out of date. Many victims of crime in the Eighteenth Century were choosing not to prosecute the criminals due to receiving community disapproval if the criminal was a local person who was liked or had a big family in the surrounding towns and villages, it was expensive for the rate payer, travelling to the trial was time consuming and a waste of time for many matters as the criminal would often be let off with a light penalty. Many offenders never even ended up in prison and many were never even recorded. Pentonville Prison was built in 1842, and was an original structure within society in this time period. It soon became a model for prison architecture and discipline throughout the majority of Europe. General Prison Information John Howard wrote a book in 1777 called ‘The State of the Prisons in England and Wales this particular book captured widespread public attention. The consequence of this book was that it exposed the English to other countries. It also suggested that the book was severely trailing behind all the other countries when it came to prisons and punishment. His main concern was to establish a new and better organisation of the prison. He believed that a prison should not be like the actual world but tougher and place that people did not want to go to, a place in which they feared. The Penitentiary Act was written up by William Blackstone and William Eden but was influenced by John Howard. It was this act that put the harsh prison conditions into place such as; uniforms, coarse diets and hard labour. Mug shots were created in the 1850s and 1860s by a Select Committee of the House of Lords photographing the prisoners in 1863. By the 1870s, mug shots were common and the Home Office saw the advantages of them. By the end of the century fingerprinting had been introduced. Not everyone who was convicted of a criminal offence was known as a convict. Anyone who had committed a minor offence would be known as a prisoner. A minor offence could receive a sentence of anything from a few days to a maximum of two years with or without hard labour. A minimum offence for penal servitude was three years which increased to five years in 1864 for a first offence but seven years for any subsequent offences. The silent system allowed for prisoners to undertake work tasks in a workroom in complete silence. The silent system however proved to be very difficult to obtain and led to it being ineffective. More staff was required to monitor and observe the prisoners. The separate system was to prevent any association with the other prisoners and as a result would become excited about the visits that the chaplain was required to do. The separate system was put in place to prevent any contamination and corruption of the vulnerable prisoners. However, a fenian convict serving fifteen years by the name of Michael Davitt spent 9 months in solitary confinement in Millbank. His health suffered leaving the medical officer with no other option but to order him to half an hour exercise. If the prisoner or convict was a family breadwinner then there family often asked the parish for help but if in the worse situation and the parish were unable to help or they refused then the family would have to enter the workhouse. Cells The cells had tiny paned windows which were so high that it was necessary to stand on them to look out, but this was a punishable offence. Cells often became hot and stuffy in the summer and cold in the winter. The cells were often poorly lit, but when gas was introduced the cells had gas jets placed in the cells but they were soon placed behind thick, fixed glass windows due to the prisoners committing suicide by self asphyxiation or hanging. There was rarely a mattress for the prisoners that were in their first of their sentence, this changed to a hard plank bed in 1865. Oscar Wilde describes the Victorian prison cells darkness stating that ‘it is always twilight in ones cell, as it is always midnight in ones heart. This statement identifies that the cells were very depressing for the person within it especially when the lighting was also minimal. If the convict was under the age of 50 then he was issued with a plank bed that had no mattress for one month. The surgeon was the only person that could have changed this uncomfortable fate for the prisoner if he had deemed that the convict or prisoner was unfit to sleep without a mattress. Oscar Wilde recalled that the plank bed ‘caused him to shiver all night long and that, as a consequence of its rigors, he had become an insomniac.'[1] A report that was made to the Royal Commission on the Penal Servitude Acts in 1879 claimed that the bed clothes could sometimes be covered with faeces. Complaints were made about Pentonville cells being unbearably cold. This is somewhat arguably ironic due to the efforts that were put in place to create the ideal model cells. The first commissioners report in 1843 was no more than two pages long. It commented on the temperature of the cells ‘the ventilation of the cells, and the means of maintain an equable and proper temperature. Pentonville was originally designed to hold 520 prisoners whilst under the ‘separate system. Individual cells were 13 feet long, 7 feet wide and 9 feet high. They were placed in cells that contained a table, chair, a cobblers bench, hammock, broom, bucket and a corner shelf which held a pewter mug and dish, a bar of soap, a towel and a bible. When the cells were inspected by the inspectors the prisoners were required to have these items in specific places. Millbank prison held up to 1000 cells, making it the largest prison in London during the 19th century. The Times Newspaper from 1850-1900 shows a few extracts which describe both the criminals within Millbank and also the state of the prison. An extract on the 23rd January 1850 shows how a warder was attacked by a prisoner. The opening sentence went as follows, ‘Saturday morning last the interior of the Millbank Penitentiary was again the scene of a most desperate outrage. The word ‘again identifies the lack of control that the warders had on the prisoners within the prison. The incident on the 23rd January resulted in a warder by the name of ‘Balls ‘ending up in hospital after a violent attack from one of the prisoners. Balls let a prisoner out of his chamber to allow him to clean out his chamber pot, the prisoner then followed Balls back to his cell and hit him over the head. The prisoner was able to cause several severe injuries to the head, face and arms before several other warders were able to secure the prisoner in a ‘strong cell. Punishment The separate system was to ensure that the prisoners would not interact with other criminals in whom they would be able to become friendly with and join forces with when they got out of prison. This was an attempt to stop convicts from becoming repetitive criminals and to stop the revolving door theory. When the convicts were moved around the building they were made to wear a mask with a beak on to prevent other convicts seeing their faces but Colonel Jebb argued in his discipline and management of convict prisons report that ‘the mask or peak does not prevent prisoners from recognising each other in the prison'[2] They were also stripped of their identities when they entered the prison. The prisoners would also become overly bored sitting in their cells on their own that they would eventually beg for work to overcome their boredom and prevent them from going mad. The Times Newspaper described the separate system in 1842 as the ‘maniac making system indicating that people believed that the system was not a good idea and it would just send men and women insane but still the Home office agreed with the separate system. Two thirds of English prisons had adopted the separate system in 1856. The fourth commissioners identifies that the prisoners were strictly separated from fellow prisoners. They were supplied with books which were usually the bible and books that provided information and instruction on a particular trade. They were allowed to attend school twice a week and also according the report the prisoners were also provided with sufficient diets, clothing and also bedding but this can be argued due to the plank beds and also the poor diets which resulted in many prisoners falling ill. The prisoners were required to endure 18 months in complete solitude in 1842, but after many prisoners became mentally insane the prison authorities felt that the time period should be decreased to 12 months in 1848 then decreased again to 9 months in 1853. Even though they were in their cells on their own, the man in the next cell was only two feet away. The major problem for the separatists at this time was the belief held by many that the long periods of isolation for prisoners created insanity. Pentonville reduced periods of separation at Pentonville which was much to the Chaplains displeasure. When Pentonville separation time period was decreased to 9 months it was the same amount of time that the prisoners at Parkhurst had to endure. Millbank Prison did not allow criminals to have visitors without an order from the Home secretary of state, this was part of the separate system as the government believed that if the prisoner saw anyone from the outside then they would go back to their ‘old ways. When Henry Mayhew visited Pentonville he found from interviews with the prisoners that they disliked the separate system with a passion. Even though prisoners were not allowed to talk or communicate to fellow inmates, it is evident that many tended to disobey this rule. The 6th Commissioners report states that 220 prisoners committed offences whilst being within Pentonville, and that 110 out of the 220 were for attempts to communicate with other prisoners either by writing, signs or verbally. The total number of prisoners placed within Pentonville during the year 1847 was 701, so only 220 prisoners committing offences within the prison walls shows that many prisoners were afraid and obeyed the system. 341 of these prisoners were existing prisoners from the previous year whilst 360 prisoners were received to Pentonville in the course of the year. However, a new system known as the ‘stage system was put in place in 1853 to enforce discipline and also to reward good behaviour. Penal servitude was divided into three stages, the first being 9 months in solitary confinement, the second being where the convict was required to work in close association with other prisoners and the last stage was where the convict or prisoner was kept under supervision by the police when they were released. Convicts were divided into classes and could be promoted to the next class by earning ‘mark for hard work. A maximum of 8 hours could be earned in one day. The first and second class were allowed tea instead of gruel before they were sent to bed. Du Cane states that the main elements of prison were ‘hard labour, hard fare and hard board Hard labour was both hard and pointless, it included labour such as Oakum picking, the crank, the treadmill and also the shot drill. The treadmill involved walking up revolving stairs for ten minutes then having a five minute break. This happened for several hours. It was invented by William Cubitt in 1818 and the prison discipline society advised that every male should participate in 12,000 feet. The treadmill could be very dangerous for those who were new to it and also for those who were exhausted. The Shot drill were heavy cannon balls weighing 32lb were passed from one to another down a long line of prisoners. It was not adopted by many prisons. The conditions at Pentonville were incredibly better than those at Newgate. The prisoners at Pentonville were also healthier than prisoners at another prison. Like Millbank, prisoners were made to work and participate in jobs such as picking tarred rope and weaving. The jobs in which they made to do were pointless jobs which served no purpose. The Times Newspaper states that the hours of work in the summer were 6am till 9pm and 7am till 8pm in the winter. The prisoners were separated into classes when they entered the prison which resulted in the same atmosphere that people endured outside the prison. They were also made to work; it was believed that if prisoners worked whilst in prison then they would not have time to think of committing more crimes. They were forced to do work such as shoemaking, tailoring, painting, cleaning, whitewashing the prison, washing and sewing prison clothes. In 1864, Oakum picking was introduced as part of the hard labour programme. This involved separating the fibres of old ship ropes so they could be re used. In 1870 two cranks were introduced to a local prison, Nottingham Gaol, this was a box with a handle on the side in which the prisoner was made to turn round in a circle. The prisoner was required to make 10,000 revolutions per day before breakfast. The task of the crank was one task that was completely pointless, it served no meaning but to irritate the prisoner and increase their upper body strength so they were able to complete more heavy duty work whilst in prison and also when they leave prison and get a job. Henry Mayhew states that ‘it is impossible to imagine anything more ingeniously useless'[3]. Labour was both long and without any intentions of ceasing. The 1865 Prison Act accepted that the treadmill, crank, capstan, shot drill and stone breaking were all types of first class hard labour and that if a prisoner or convict was not sentenced to hard labour then they were still required to participate in light labour during their sentence. Prisoners were made to work an hour and a half before breakfast, 3 hours before lunch and a further 4 hours in the afternoon totalling 8 and a half hours hard labour a day. The prisoners returned to their cells at 6pm and were allowed to have two hours after their dinner to sit on their own and reflect or read the bible. When the prisoner or convict was serving a long sentence, these two hours would become incredibly boring. When public hangings were abolished in 1868, Pentonville had trapdoors installed over a 12 feet deep brick lined pit within the exercise yard. Albert Pierrepoint described the trap in 1931 as ‘having two leaves each some 8 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 6 inches wide.'[4] The prison was also a school to teach hangmen, there was a one week course at Pentonville in which men got involved in to become a hangman. They were taught how to calculate and set the drop of the gallows and also how to carry out an execution efficiently including the speed of pulling the trapdoor open and also how long a human takes to die from strangulation if the neck did not break from the drop. Albert Pierrepoint states that the hangman trainees used a dummy called ‘Old Bill whilst training. The last training course held at Pentonville was the week beginning 25th April 1960 for two men called Samuel Plant and John Underhill. Whipping was also a major punishment in the nineteenth century. The Home office in 1878 took responsibility for prisons and created three categories for the birch which was used for whipping. A thin strip of birch was used for juveniles up to the age of ten, a medium for ten to 16 years and thick for individuals over the age of 16 years. The birch was applied to naked buttocks whilst feet were kept together and shirts lifted. The effects of whipping were a little bleeding but mainly severe bruising. Once the pain of the whipping was over and the aching of the bruising had gone down, criminals could carry on committing crimes within a matter of weeks. The birch and cat was also used on prisoners all over the country for punishing prisoners who assaulted or swore at warders. Both male and female criminals sentenced to transportation were sent to Millbank before they were transported although Pentonville has been viewed as being the first stage of transportation as Forsythe states ‘the portal to the penal colony'[5]. Transportation was a sentence in which could have held a life sentence or for a set amount of time. It was seen as a humane version of execution. At one point, returning from a transportation sentence was a hanging offence. Both major and petty crimes could result in the transportation punishment during the 17th to 19th centuries. Until 1868, convicts could be transported to a penal colony on the other side of the world. Transportation criminals were originally sent to the colonies in North America until the American War of Independence in 1775.Britain was then forced to send their criminals to Australia. The 4th commissioners report on the 10th March 1846 identifies that 382 prisoners had completed their period and had been removed from Pentonville to Van Diemens land which was an Island of Tasmania but it is now part of Australia. They were placed into classes which were as follows, the ticket of leave class was the first which contained 288 prisoners, Probationary pass holders was the second which contained a further 78 prisoners and then the penal gangs class was the third which contained the last 16 prisoners. Ticket of leave was where the prisoner had the advantage of freedom within the colony, the probationary pass holders were able to work for themselves with restrictions and the penal gangs were where the convict was required to serve a certain period after they arrived in their allocated location. There was also a journey in July 1845 in which a total of 100 prisoners were transported on the Royal George Seymour ship. The commissioners report states that they received a sati sfactory account of the prisoners conduct for the journey and the arrival. Prisoners who were sentenced to transportation were perceived as being the ‘pick of the criminal crop'[6] identifying that the criminals who were sent abroad to serve their sentence were the worst kind of people and criminals. Food Prisons were run like machines and all the prisoners within Pentonville prison could have their breakfasts delivered to them in ten minutes. The prisons were instructed to make the prisoners food as monotonous as possible as part of the hard fare factor and the prisoners had hard beds instead of hammocks as part of the hard board factor. A letter written to the Times editor by a Mr Robert Hosking, who was Pentonvilles governor, identifies the costs of convicts at the Pentonville Prison. He states that ‘convicts in Pentonville prison are actually rioting in gluttony'[7] due to lack of food. He identifies what the prisons have in relation to meals. The extract also identifies that if a prisoner is on surveillance for bad behaviour then they would receive less bread than the rest of the prisoners. The convicts diet consisted mainly of bread in which they receive a 10oz at breakfast, 5 oz at lunch and a further 5oz for their supper. Their diet included both carbohydrates and protein but very little else. The prisoners were given water gruel and a small loaf of brown bread. The cooks put a lot of salt in their food to add seasoning, but the salt made the prisoners thirsty which made swallowing the food incredibly hard and painful. The potatoes that were given to the prisoners were inedible and were rotten, whilst the suet pudding was both dry and tasteless with bit of suet visible to the naked eye. The 1864 report on the dietaries of convict prisoners claims that there were two separate diets within the prison, the first being the penal class diet and the second being the punishment diet. The penal diet consisted of the standard food allowance that the prisoners were entitled to such as porridge potatoes and bread but the punishment diet consisted of bread and water and every fourth day then they were allowed the penal class diet. Dartmoor was the only convict prison within the country that allowed its prisoners cocoa for supper three times a week. The committee recommended that the dietary needs for male convicts within separate confinement and also industrial employment consisted of 284oz per week of solid food which contained 148 oz of bread, 96oz of potatoes, 16oz of meat, 4oz of cheese and also 4oz of meat that was in soup. One prisoner commented on the suet pudding to the Gladstone Committee and stated that ‘mo matter how hungry a man might be, his stomach would naturally turn from it[8]. This identifies the extent of the ghastliness of the food in which convicts and prisoners were required to eat especially when some prisoners and convicts would eat candle ends and boot grease to control their hunger. Oscar Wilde told friends after leaving prison that the food was both revolting and also insufficient. The total cost of each prisoners diet was 3s 11/2d per week or 8l 3s 41/2 for the year. In the 4th commissioners report it mentions an increase in the diet expenses and the reason being due to the rise in the price of the flour and the potatoes. A Convict Prison Pentonville prison began to be constructed on the 10th April 1840 and was completed in 1842. The total cost of the building of the prison was  £84, 186 12s 12d and the total upkeep of each prisoner was 15s a week in the 1840s which is the equivalent of 75p in todays money. Two acts had to be passed to allow the building of the prison. The convict service was established in 1850 when Millbank, Pentonville and the hulks became under the governments control. Like Millbank prison which was the first convict prison in London, Pentonville was built on the ideas and plans of Jeremy Bentham. The Pentonville Prison followed Benthams Panopticon idea; the panopticon idea was the criminals were under constant surveillance. The Prison had a central hall which was surrounded by five wings, which all members of staff were able to survey from the central hall. Pentonville soon became the model prison for all British prisons during the Victorian era and over the next six years a further 54 other prisons were built throughout Britain with the same design as Pentonville. Even though Pentonville was known as the model prison, prisoners still managed to escape from it. An extract in the Times in December 1850 identifies George Hackett, a professional criminal who mastered in bus muggings and had a criminal history with the Thames police and Mansion House. Hackett as stated by the Times made an ‘extraordinary escape from the Pentonville (model) prison. When investigation went into place, it was found that Hackett escaped the police court with another man, and a turnkey had received a large amount of money. Hackett was serving a sentence for a crime that he committed on the 29th May 1850 in which he nearly murdered a police constable. He was sentenced to 15 years of transportation. The investigation resulted in authorities believing that the turnkeys had been tampered with. The next day on the 4th December, the Times commented on this speculation once again by stating that the government inspectors of prisons launched an inquiry into a private inve stigation into the escape of Hackett. They believed that the turnkeys and the officers had helped Hackett escape from the prison which identifies that the officials at the prison were easily influenced and like Millbank held little control of the convicts. There was six main convict prisons throughout Britain- Millbank was used as a transportation dept, Pentonville as a model separation, Portsmouth and Portland for associated labour, Parkhurst for juvenile delinquencies, Brixton was a womans prison and Dartmoor was for invalids that were unable to participate in labour. Local prisons were vastly different from a convict prison due to the difference in skills. There was such a high turnover of prisoners within a local prison whilst prisoners within a convict prison served longer periods of time. A prisoner within the convict prison would have more than likely done time in a local prison before being transferred to the convict so the officers within the convict prisons were well informed of each prisoner as the paper work and inspection had already been done for convict officers. There were also distinct differences within the prisoners accommodation, discipline, work tasks and the general treatment of the prisoners. If a convict was well behaved during his sentence then he could be entitled to their sentences being shortened but a local prisoner who was sentenced to a maximum of two years did not have the option of having the sentence shortened whether they were well behaved or not until 1898. In 1877 these differences became minimal as the government took over all prisons in Britain including the local prisons. Each prison throughout the country was required to have school staff ‘at an additional expense of  £2,230.'[9]The convict prison has school staff on site from 1870 onwards and the local from 1879 onwards. The 4th Commissioners report in 1846 identifies that the state of Pentonville prison was in a perfect state of repair and only several important additions had been made to the prison during the years 1845-1846 one of these being the erection of a ‘complete apparatus for the manufacture of gas for the use of the establishment'[10]. In the 6th Commissioners report in 1847-48 it claims that an additional six sittings had been made within the chapel and also a fire main was laid down in order to supply the engine with water from a large tank in the roof. It also claimed that the ventilating, warming and cooking apparatus were in good order but complaints from the prisoners perceives a different story as they constantly complained of the cold cells. Prisoners When a convicted prisoner was sent to prison they travelled in a hearse like omnibus which was nicknamed the Black Maria when they went from the courts to the prison. They would then begin their prison journey in the reception ward where they were made to strip naked and had their clothes and possessions confiscated of him. They were then placed into a bath of waist high water which tended to smell like carbolic acid, this bath was not to clean them but to erase their original selves and replace it with their new prison lives. Their heads were shaved and the prisoners were not allowed to grow their hair till 3 months before the end of their sentence. Uniforms were issued which were different colours or markings depending on the prison sentence that the person is serving. Old or repaired boots were also issued to each prisoner but underwear was not issued till late nineteenth century. His name was changed to a number which he would be known as for the time he spent within the prison. If the prisoner was a repetitive convict then the number would be different each time. Each prisoner was allowed one visit every 6 months and one letter every 6 months, which made prisoners feel very lonely but with their I.Ds stripped they were made to feel like completely different men to what they were when they entered the prison. The warder also listened in on the conversations and watched to make sure that nothing was being passed between the prisoner and the visitor. The warder also timed the meeting by using a sandglass which allowed the meeting to be no longer than fifteen minutes. The longer the prisoner was in prison the shorter the time period for visits became. Prisoners serving within the second year were allowed visits every 4 months and prisoners within the third year or more were allowed visits every three months. The letters that the prisoners wrote to family and friends were censored and read by the governor and the chaplain before they were sent off. They were forbidden to write about the prison or other prisoners that were within it. The convicts at Pentonville Prison were made to wear dark grey outfits with ‘P.P embroided in red into the collar. The P.P stood for Pentonville Prison. The first ever mention of a prisoner having a structured daily routine was in 1865, the daily routine of a prisoner from this date was as follows: they were woken at 5.45am by the sound of a bell and returned to their beds at 8pm. They were allowed an hour or half an hour of exercise which was required to be done in silence within the special yards. After, they were made to work for a further 8 hours. The prisoners day would include waking up, working, eating meals, visiting the chapel, exercising, and an inspection ending with the lights being put out. The routine differed on a Sunday with the bell ringing slightly later and the day containing church services and exercise. Prisoners were made to endure 3 chapel services every Sunday, Christmas day and also Good Friday. The chapel was only able to accommodate half the prisoners so each prisoner was required to attend two services on a Sunday and then one upon the following. Daily prayers were read within the chapel every morning and evening. Each prisoner would attend one of these daily services. This was to cleanse the prisoners soul and make them a better person when they were released back into society. It was attempts into making the prisoner go back into work rather than result to crime. In the morning they were allowed out of their cells to have a wash with which a bucket of water was provided, this water would then be used to clean their cells and tin ware. This was also the time in which they were required to clean out their slop buckets and roll up their bedding, which had to be done correctly. Not all prisoners were guilty when they were sent to prison, an example of this is a man named Valentine Bambrick who was a recipient of the Victorian Cross. He was sent to prison for protecting a woman against a man named Henry Russell, whilst protecting her in a fight broke out and Russell later accused Bambrick and a woman named Charlotte Johnson of stealing his medals and violent assault. Bambrick had his Victorian Cross revoked by the Royal Warrant in December 1863. He fell into a deep depression and after writing a letter protesting his innocence he committed suicide by hanging himself in his cell in Pentonville Prison. The 6th Commissioners report shows that half the prisoners in Pentonville in 1847-48 were between the ages of 20-25 years old and two thirds were unmarried. One third of 701 prisoners had been imprisoned in other places of confinement beforehand, 74 had been imprisoned twice before and 27 had been imprisoned three times before. Even with the harsh prison regulations and conditions, people still chose to continually break the law and find themselves back in Pentonville; five men during 1847-48 were serving their tenth time within Pentonville. Health Prisoners were often observed and it was found that due to the separate system many prisoners would leave prison suffering from crying outbursts and hysteria, some had to cover their ears due to the noise being too much for them to cope with. Others often found themselves daydrea

Should We Pay Farmers Not to Grow Crops? Essay -- Argumentative Agricu

Should We Pay Farmers Not to Grow Crops? The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) was established under the Conservation Title of the 1985 Food Security Act and is still in place today. This program which intended to assist with possible environmental problems is one that is beneficial to the farmers and our country's environment and therefore should stay in effect. However, it should be examined how this program is being conducted to ensure that the original objectives are being met today and with maximum efficiency. When the CRP was established in 1985 as a voluntary acreage retirement program, there were seven stated objectives that were introduced as well. 'The stated objectives of the CRP are to (a) reduce water and wind erosion, (b) protect our long-term capability to produce food and fiber, (c) reduce sedimentation, (d) improve water quality, (e) create better habitat for fish and wildlife through improved food and cover, (f) curb production of surplus commodities, and (g) provide needed income support for farmers' (Boggess and Reichelderfer 111). The program also was subject to the constraints of having a minimum of 5 million acres enrolled by 1986 and at least 10 million acres by 1989. It was also specified that no more than 25% of any one specific county's cropland can be enrolled in the program at the same time. (Boggess and Reichelderfer 111). In order to be qualified for the program owners and operators who currently farm 'highly erodible' land may apply for program funding. According to Dana Hoag and Herb Holloway, highly erodible land is defined as 'having an erodibility index greater than or equal to 8' (185). The main benefits of this program include the extra income for the farmers and the positive env... ... and Katherine Reichelderfer. ?Government Decision Making and Program Performance: The Case of the Conservation Reserve Program.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. February 1988. 111-121. Buchholtz, Shawn, and Michael J. Roberts. ?Slippage in the Conservation Reserve Program or Spurious Correlation? A Comment.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. February 2005. 244-250. Hoag, Dana L., and Herb A. Holloway. ?Farm Production Decisions Under Cross and Conservation Compliance.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. February 1991. 184-193. Smith, Rodney B.W. ?The Conservation Reserve Program as a Least-Cost Land Retirement Mechanism.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. April 2005. 52-67. Wu, Jun Jie. ?Slippage Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. November 2000. 979-992.